Deconstructing the Tribe: A Poststructuralist Critique of a Problematic Category

Introduction Tribe, at least in its current usage, implicitly refers to that a tangible interconnection links a circumscribed ethnic group with a self-evident cultural repertoire. Many unanswered questions remain about what constitutes a tribe and how they are defined, even though European-American colonial expansionists often used the phrase throughout the colonial encounter. This analytical narcissism results in a halt to what is empirically and theoretically permitted in the study of tribes. Aiming to expand our understanding in this area is a worthwhile intellectual endeavour. It has become increasingly common for people who do not want to identify with any particular tribe to come into contact with rural residents who have been deterritorialized and relocated to urban areas that are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated. This is an attempt to start a debate about the reliability of this increasingly unreliable idea. I question the validity of the cultural category of “tribe” by questioning the normative nature of this categorization. Anglo-American imperialists, with their “civilizing mission” between the 15th and 20th centuries accompanied by Eurocentric epistemic violence, is where I seek to place its inception, articulation, and entrenchment. Next, I discuss the theoretical grounds of my investigation. After that, I briefly define the term and explain where it came from in the context of the colonial encounter. After that, I try to dissect the rationale behind the word to dismantle it. Finally, I contend that a fundamental error in the category tribe’s logic leads to the creation of spurious distinctions. So, I dismantle the apparent connection between the construct and the concept of culture in the following paragraphs. Tribe, while flexible and conceptually simple, cannot be utilized as a basis for comprehending culture in a complex world where people, ideas, knowledge, and cultural infrastructure have moved considerably over the last six decades. To put it another way, this undermines the legitimacy of the tribe as a cultural category. Theoretical considerations Poststructuralism, which opposes the singularity of meaning and the stability of language, is the framework for my investigation. Poststructuralist ideas on culture and identity intrigue me. Instead of perceiving the self as a cognitive essence, ‘poststructuralists argue that identity processes are essentially ambiguous and always in a state of flux and reconstruction … emphasize the plurality of meaning concerning identity’ (Collinson, 2006, p. 182). For poststructuralists, an individual’s sense of self as a single, cohesive entity is primarily fictional and mythical because one’s own identity encompasses conflicting tensions and competing claims about one’s own knowledge and experience (Belsey, 2002). Instead of promoting the idea that people’s identities are fixed and immutable, poststructuralist theory promotes the idea that people’s identity is a constantly changing social process that may be modified through time. As a result, one’s identity is not a static concept but rather an ever-evolving set of personalities that one develops, adapts, and discards as one engages with oneself, others, and the broader sociocultural context in which they function. My paper examines how Zambians navigate identity processes that lack a central point of reference. Historicizing the tribe Considering the concept of tribe via a poststructuralist lens helps me answer the question, what constitutes tribehood? I also raise the question of whether or not a certain tribe form behaviours, attitudes, and cultural infrastructure before or after language’s formation. If so, does naming the tribe’s members lead to characterizing or prescribing the group’s homogenous behaviour in any way? For example, if one is a Bemba, do they inherently like monkey meat, as a Tonga might? Poststructuralism, on the other hand, contends that this is far from the case. As Weedom has argued, language, not behaviour, explains or reflects these people’s actions. There is nothing natural about the term “tribe,” which indicates that the designation is constructed through language. The colonial encounter’s binary logics, which were internalized and essentialized even after the end of colonial control, produce the discourses within which tribal citizens are formed. We become so used to certain kinds of subjectivity and identification that we do not even realize we are doing them anymore. The person who adopts these identities is more likely to internalize them. Individuals become tribal subjects when they engage in discourses about tribehood. The criteria for exclusion and inclusion of the concept of the tribe are endemically vague. Uncertainty and inexactitude surround the criteria that distinguish one tribal group from another. To the untrained eye, tribal criteria appear to be rooted in biological factors such as descent or race. On the other hand, anthropologists have been aware for more than a century that descent is the product of social construction rather than a biological fact. Researchers generally agree that ‘race’ distinctions conceal an array of non-biological differences through “biologistic reductions” in social science. Suppose one considers that nearly all of Luapula, Northern, Muchinga, Copperbelt, and part of Central province are Bemba-speaking. Yet, the tribal iconography of these regions appears to populate them with over 45 tribal units. In that case, the use of language as a viable criterion for tribe distinction fails. That some social divisions are ethnic is widely held, although it is unnecessary, characteristically false, and factually erroneous. Subjective, relative, and situational criteria are used to define tribal boundaries rather than objective and unambiguous ones. Studies have repeatedly shown that ethnic divisions are socially created and do not represent biological differences. An ethnic divide is built on a multitude of unique features that are all mutually exclusive. Some researchers have attempted to map ethnic groups using a common language, a common homeland, a nationality, or a caste. Ethnic groupings are then defined in terms of the culture they are thought to share, resulting in incorrectly validating tribal categories. To say that the term tribe is founded on a miscalculation of the identities of the people in the colonized territories would be an understatement. However, it is not entirely without merit. Non-tribe mates were the only context in which tribemate could be understood. Other analysts have claimed that colonial powers like France, Britain, Belgium, and Portugal used a basic procedure of classifying and labelling indigenous peoples to establish control over colonial areas (Southall, 1996). Based on considerable ‘mistranslation and misconceptions of local social structure, geography, and history,’ they attempted to categorize people into tribes (Southall, 1996, p. 1331). As a result, a common language and culture, with uniform laws of social structure, a common name, and a contiguous region and history of common descent began to be referred to as “primitive peoples” under the normative term tribe. As a result, essentialization and solidification into bogus tribal designations of ambiguous and frequently erroneous distinctions among colonial peoples occurred (Southall, 1996). According to other researchers, tribes were manufactured creations that did not come about organically, like language. Instead, the colonial state’s administrative apparatus steadily institutionalized the tribe. The indirect rule approach in Anglophone Africa relied heavily on this term. As a practical and political measure to keep the populace in check, the British government established and institutionalized this system of local leaders serving as chiefs of their separate tribes, subject to colonial monitoring and regulation (Sneath, 2016, p. 4). ‘Any aggregate of families or small groups that are organized together under a chief or leader, maintaining similar customs and social laws, and tracing their genealogy from a common ancestor’ became the official definition of the term over time (Sneath, 2016, p. 4). No matter how much it was legitimized and essentialized, the consensus among anthropologists (many of whom were participants in the construction’s legitimacy) is that it was tainted by ‘scandalous imprecision.’ People who lived in tribes were seen as a remnant of a lower form of life left behind by the march of history, waiting to be redeemed and reshaped by the intervention of higher forces. This was the original meaning of the term, coined by Euro-American colonists to describe a more primitive order in which tribal people were excluded from the ‘pale of civil society’ (Yapp, 1983, p. 154). Thus, tribes were widely referred to as ‘savage’. (Yapp, 1983, p. 154). Using the narrative of primitive cultures as an analytical unit of barbarous societies, the growing science of anthropology gave credence to this pejorative phrase in the nineteenth century. Anthropologists’ criticism of “tribe” grew in the mid-20th century. This was after they realised that many so-called tribes had been formed during colonial times. Many of their titles derive from slang phrases coined by outsiders but later adopted by the government as official designations. For example, Richard F. Burton claimed to have discovered three powerful tribes in Tanganyika in the mid-1800s: Sukuma, Nyamwezi, and Takama. Burton had scandalously misinterpreted or perhaps misheard his interpreters, who ‘were giving him the phrases for ‘those to the North, West, and South’ of wherever they happened to be’ (Southall 1985, p. 569). Several tribes were born out of such broadly defined limitations during the colonial period. By creating a ‘tribal unit’ around this uncertainty, Cameron, and his ilk ‘erected indirect rule.’ They were in charge and shaped the political landscape (Ranger 1983, p. 250). The production of artificial difference The most basic definition of “tribe” refers to a collection of people who share memories of a distant, often mythological homeland, a village with a chief, and a tribal tag to complete the picture of a distinct identity. The designated individual will frequently engage in the form of active identification as a result of this tribal identity. For example, a community may claim that its sartorial customs, gastronomic preferences, and body markings are unique indicators of its tribehood. As a result, tribal identity and behaviour come to the forefront of the culture. Nationhood, on the other hand, is a sort of identification that mobilizes belongingness by enrolling subjects and relying on both emotional and cognitive labels to interpolate individuals as citizens of a single nation. Citizenship markers like birth certificates, passports, and electoral rolls are monitored and distributed by a complicated bureaucracy. It is the goal of the national anthems, sung at official state occasions and cultural and sporting events, to instil a sense of national pride in the people. Individuals may not have access to all the identities and modes of subjectivity available in a culture. They tend to be restricted to a small number of organizations and are closely monitored by those organizations. The tribal model has a peculiar way of creating otherness. The technique involves othering non-tribe-mate objects and constructing tribe-mate subjects. This formulation establishes tribal subjects, whereas those who do not belong to the same tribe are ostracized. This abjection process is the only way to create tribal distinctions. When people successfully integrate these tribal labels, they become a part of their lived subjectivity. The widely used and widely accepted cousinship (Icimbuya) jibes in Zambia perfectly illustrate this binary logic. By jokingly tying up with members of certain tribes while rejecting those of other tribes, we essentialize potentially damaging differences. Consequently, this subjectification shapes the interaction of individuals whose tribes align. Within the tribal model, some artificial qualities exist that are not shared by othered tribes. Members of other tribes are often stereotyped and, at times, scorned by others. Intergroup conflict is exacerbated when people from different tribes collectively refer to one another as ‘the other.’ This makes it difficult for people in a transition state to develop several identities. As a result of their existence beyond the tribal axis, those who have been deemed ‘lesser’ become ‘the other.’ With this framework, tribe-mate subjects become what they should be in the context of the tribal alliance’s circumstances. In reality, the boundaries of these tribes can be much more permeable than we typically think. A closer look at this allegedly irreversible tribal identity reveals that it is subject to the whims of so many different factors. We can, for example, investigate the flow of people, ideas, and cultural infrastructure while contesting its historical trajectory. People cannot own their identity because it constantly changes (Carbaugh, 1996; Shotter & Gergen, 1989). When people engage with one another, they take on a variety of identities, many of which are unconnected to tribal concerns. Millennials, in particular, are continually renegotiating the limits of artificial tribes. Humans are constantly influenced and impacted by each other as they depend more on intra-actions. As a result of our modern population’s diversity, we can now drop our tribal name. Many see the concept of the tribe as a valid basis for comprehending the culture of a particular group. Consider how the concept of a tribe, characterized as conventional and measurable, influences how culture is assumed and implemented. Who gets to say they represent a culture, and what does that mean? What can we deduce about the cultural classification work done by tribes? Many say that the term ”culture” connotes uniformity, consistency, and timelessness in a group’s meaning systems and functions. Thus, people use tribe, like race to differentiate fundamentally distinct, essentialized, and homogeneous social groups. However, these cultural formulations are fundamentally problematic in establishing the boundaries between groups in an absolute and artificial way. Conceptualizations of culture have shifted over time. For instance, some scholars have asserted that ‘man [sic] is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun’ (Geertz 1973, p. 5). Others have argued that ‘the point is not that there is no longer anything we would call “culture,” but that interpretive analysis of social groups should be situated within and, as it were, beneath larger analyses of social and political events and processes (Ortner, 1999, p. 9). Today’s social and cultural landscape is constantly changing and evolving for citizens. Having a fixed sense of one’s identity and culture is hard. The concept of the self as an “objectifiable, cognitive essence” is becoming unsatisfactory. We should learn to consider identity as intrinsically ambiguous and constantly evolving. The people, interactions, and circumstances in which a person’s identity has, does, or will exist influence and shape it. People’s interactions with others and the surrounding environment shape their sense of self. These boundaries, symbols, meanings, and conventions are established and adjusted when people affiliate themselves with diverse groups. The preceding analysis demonstrates that culture is an abstract and purely analytical concept utilized by ethnographers rather than an actual thing. Because it summarizes an abstraction from the behaviour it represents, it is neither normative nor predictive. Culture, even when enacted, is merely a conscious analytical abstraction since it only exists when put into practice. As a result, tribal claims of cultural uniformity are exaggerations. Culture is not a discrete commodity that can be acquired, possessed, and abandoned as needed. Therefore, the term “tribe,” popularized by anthropologists, is no longer considered a viable analytical unit. According to Wim van Binsbergen, anthropologists in Zambia need to break ‘from the tribal model on the analytical’ level (p. 182). As a result, it is impossible to assert with any degree of certainty that culture is the outcome of interactions limited to a particular ethnic group. According to current theories, culture is generated via the interaction of many interconnected and dynamic variables constantly generating and re-forming their reality. Furthermore, with so many unconnected cleavages to the term, having tribe in situ as a cultural category is illogical and impracticable. This meaningless tribal concept is degrading and wrong; people must remove it because it contains no natural, cultural, or biological characteristics. New avenues for embracing cultural output must be made available to us. For example, there may be a method to employ cultural engineering to foster companionship rather than tribal animosity, where differences are cherished rather than pushed to the fringes. Tribal categorizations and labelling have paralyzed residents’ identities. They have attached territoriality and chieftaincy to people’s citizenship. In the geographical setting of Zambia, the term ‘tribe’ is used as a synonym for a common language, implying a shared cultural and linguistic identity. The tribe’s unquestionable acceptability as a metaphor for a collection of related but unique individuals is most likely due to the construct’s early pragmatic adaptation and a wide variety of potential applications. The construct is conceptually simple, has a unique mode of communication, can be applied in various ways, encompasses different ideologies, and may be utilized for multiple objectives, some of which may be questionable. In a plurally constructed landscape, as many parts of Zambia have been since independence, with a range of empirically overlapping personages and diverse social cleavages cutting across one another, the logic that sustains tribal thinking crumbles. The exact expressions representing its effects performatively establish tribehood (Butler 1990). There is no identity hidden beneath tribal expressions. Cassava consumption is one example of a social behaviour whose meaning shifts through time. Anyone can play the role of a subject. Similarly, the epistemic violence of Eurocentrism pervades today’s cultural world. Zambian identity has traditionally been founded on this conceptual fixity, which connects an individual’s identity to their claimed ancestral homelands. Because the national identity card (NRC) preserves a person’s home village, they will always be tied to that village even if they are born, raised, and work elsewhere in the country. The NRC may sentence a guilty individual to a fictitious ancestral homeland that they will never see in their lifetime. As a result, significant artificial constraints exist on cultural output. These constraints thwart a strong sense of cultural inclusivity. The concept of culture is regarded as exclusive in this context. This viewpoint regards culture as a distinct entity that individuals might claim as their own based on imagined ties to ancestral or tribal homelands. As a result, tribalism may have taken root in how we perceive ourselves. As a result, the cornerstone of African hood is built on ‘constitutive exclusions’ (Zehle, 2004) that ‘other’ those who do not share a tribe or cultural background. It is abundantly clear that, while the term tribe is adaptive and conceptually simple, we cannot use it to comprehend culture in a complex world where people, ideas, knowledge, and cultural infrastructure have evolved radically in the last six decades. This paper is a call to the scholarly community to action. I argue that comprehending the detrimental impacts of tribalism may be achieved by considering the context in which the problematic notion is deployed and launched. I have demonstrated that the construct is riddled with ambiguity and has a profoundly unsettling foundation in the colonial encounter. We can no longer use it to define the characteristics of a highly cosmopolitan nation. Anthropologists had an excellent reason for rejecting the construct as a unit of analysis; we have no business embracing a word that insults us while failing to clarify the constraints of the boundaries it pretends to build. References Belsey, C. (2002). Poststructuralism: A very short introduction. OUP Oxford. Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble, feminist theory, and psychoanalytic discourse. Feminism/postmodernism327, 324-340. Carbaugh, D. (1996). Situating selves: The communication of social identities in American scenes. Suny Press. Collinson, D. (2006). Rethinking followership: A post-structuralist analysis of follower identities. Leadership Quarterly, 17(2), 179-189. Garfinkel, H. (1984). Studies in ethnomethodology. Polity Press. Geertz, C. (1973). Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive theory of culture. Ortner, S. B. (1999). Some futures of anthropology. Ranger, T. 1983. The invention of tradition in Colonial Africa. In E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (Eds.). The Invention of Tradition, pp. 211-62. Cambridge University Press. Shotter, J. E., & Gergen, K. J. (1989). Texts of identity. Sage Publications, Inc. Sneath, D. (2016). Tribe. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Sneath, D. 2007. The headless state: Aristocratic orders, kinship society, and misrepresentations of Inner Asia. Columbia University Press. Southall, A. (1970). The illusion of the tribe. In P. Gutkind (Ed.). The passing of tribal man in  Africa, pp. 28-50. Brill. Southall, A. (1996). Tribe. In D. Levinson & M. Ember (Eds.). Encyclopedia of cultural anthropology, 1329-36. New York: Henry Holt. Southall, A. (1985). Review: The ethnic heart of anthropology (Le cœur ethnique de l’anthropologie). Cahiers d’Études Africaines 25, 567-72. Van Binsbergen, W., Binsbergen, W. V., & Geschiere, P. (1985). From tribe to ethnicity in Western Zambia: The unit of study as an ideological problem. Old Modes of Production and Capitalist Encroachment, 181-234. Weedon, C. (1987). Feminist practice and poststructuralist theory. Basil Blackwell. Yapp, (1983). Tribes and states in the Khyber 1838–42. In R. Tapper (Ed.). The conflict of tribe and state in Iran and Afghanistan. London: Croom Helm. Zehle, S. (2004). Cosmopolitical mediations: Indigenous interventions in the biodiversity process. The State University of New York at Binghamton.

The Rise and Fall

HAVE you ever wondered why our school curricular on African History (Kingdom-based) is always on the Rise and Fall…? For instance, the Rise and Fall of the Bemba Kingdom; The Rise and Fall of the Kalonga Kingdom; The Rise and Fall of the Ngoni Kingdom. But why the ‘Rise and Fall?’ (For reference check Hantobolo History book).

However, when you go to European History, it is, “Scramble for Africa,” Splendid Isolation, Cold War, World War I, World War II, Italy (Benito Mussolini) etc. Learning European History in High School came with a certain level of supremacy, especially if one understood it well and it also had a lot of notes (bulky content). While, our own African History was so simplistic and mostly told from a ‘Portuguese’ point of view. Why? Was there no African to tell it for us? Or maybe it is because most of our history is folklore and never put on paper by us?

Check for instance, the Kazembe Kingdom told in our history books is different from the one witnessed and told during the Mutomboko Traditional Ceremony of the Lunda People. The most confusing part is how they crossed the Luapula/Lualaba River! Other history sources will tell you that the Mwata Kazembe and Mwata Yamvo were in the same entourage of his half brothers, Chiti and Nkole who left their Father, Mukulupe, in Katanga region to expand his Kingdom in the Northern part of modern-day Zambia. Other sources of history will tell you that Kazembe crossed over to modern-day Zambia to expand his brother’s Kingdom, Mwata Yamvo.

These historical disparities are well documented and we learn/have learnt them in our schools. Nevertheless, when one visits the actual Royal Establishments of these Kingdoms, one will be told a whole different story from what is documented in our school curriculum. I wonder why we have never taken an interest in documenting the actual told stories from the Royal Establishments and correcting the ‘Portuguese’ documented AFRICAN HISTORY.

The same goes for the famous Mthethwa Kingdom from which we saw the ‘Rise and Fall’ of the Zulu Kingdom under Shaka.

The Nguni people of Southern Africa remember the emergence of Shaka’s Zulu Kingdom between 1816 and 1828, the most dramatic episode in the formation of the Zulu State, as a time of dispersal, famine and human suffering. Scholars in the twentieth century have characterised the Shaka era as the MFECANE, a term standardised by historian Eric Walker in 1928 in the first edition of his ‘History of Southern Africa’ (James Gump, Associate Prof. of History at the University of San Diego).

In 1986, the Shaka Zulu television series directed by William Faure, written by American Writer Joshua Sinclair and starring Henry Cele (late, died in 2007) as Shaka hit the TV screens. Watching this series in the early 2000s was thrilling and much more relatable. Later during the years at Secondary School, reading The Rise and Fall of the Zulu Kingdom under Shaka, I recall during one of my history classes in Grade 9, when our history teacher made us watch “Shaka the Zulu” as part of the lesson. Thank God during the exams Shaka came and of course, justice was done to the paper😂😂😂.

Many born before 1999 who have watched Shaka Zulu will tell you that it is the best Shaka tv series ever cast and produced, and I agree with this notion. Many related the main Actor Henry Cele as the actual Shaka. I actually grew up believing he was the original Shaka.

However, it is interesting to listen to and read different views/reviews on the new MultiChoice’s 12-episode TV series ‘Shaka Ilembe’ co-produced by Nomzamo Mbatha, Gibson, Markgraaff and Nhlanhla Mtaka. This was expected, more especially with the ones that have watched the Joshua Sinclair ‘Shaka Zulu’. Many still believe that Henry Cele’s Shaka Zulu is the original Shaka ever told story. It is also important to note that Shaka Ilembe is not a remake of William Faure’s Iconic Shaka Zulu.

We need to tell our history from our own African perspective. Having attended many of the traditional ceremonies in Luapula Province, it saddens me a lot when I look at African History told from the European perspective albeit with a lot of disparities. We know our stories because they are ours.

The team that did Shaka Ilembe relied heavily on historians and the royal family to tell the story. Nomsa Philiso, General Entertainment CEO for MultiChoice is quoted saying, “We wanted to tell it [the story] from the perspective of where the man came from and we are going to tell it in our own language, in the way that we believe can be as authentic as possible.”

The research that was done in this story, more especially the one from the royal family, I call it brevity. Why? Because definitely at some point it will be in contrast with the European version. The beauty of this is that this is OUR story, UBUNTU story and not one with a colonial perspective.

Bringing this closer home, we need to be brave enough to do OUR stories with the originality they carry. This means making use of our traditional established structures such as royal establishments and the elders who are the epitome of wisdom as our primary sources of information. Moreover, African history is embodied in folklore and passed on from one generation to the other.

Written by
Chipili Makas, Co-founder of Operation Cultural Engineering / Communication Specialist/ Filmmaker

The colonial project occasioned three waves of damage on the personality of the colonised people.

  1. First wave: Theological racism: 1492-1650: During which time the Bible, as you know it, was carefully crafted to make the victims suitably compliant.
  2. Second wave: Biological racism: 1650-1850;
  3. Third wave: Cultural racism: 1850-now.

Each of these phases is explained below.

First wave: Theological racism: 1492-1650

  1. Christian theology as the cultural base of the colonial world civilization.

The first phase of racism is theological racism. Humanity is divided into superior and inferior human beings. Racism – superiority and inferiority – is argued from Christian theology. The authority of knowledge production is Christian theologians.

Colonialism uplifts humanity by conforming to norms and values set forth by the Global North. The conformation should take place with or without force.

“Is it lawful for the King of Spain to wage war on the Indians, before preaching the faith to them, in order to subject them to his rule, so that afterwards they may be more easily instructed in the faith?” (Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, 1494-1573).

Second wave: Biological racism: 1650-1850

It was pervasive and widespread among key intellectuals of the European Enlightenment. It was unquestioned.

In the current history of the European Enlightenment, this racism has been erased, although it was omnipresent.

Authority of knowledge production shifted from theology to philosophy and natural sciences; the start of the European Enlightenment.

  1. Philosophy: Separates science from theology.

Natural sciences: Use biology to classify human beings as superior and inferior (is ethics, not science).

Link to the institutions of global economy and trans-Atlantic enslavement with the industrial revolution.

Racism – superiority and inferiority – is argued in natural sciences, notably biology. There are inferior and superior human races.

A dramatic change in the perception of Africans. Before 1650: Africans (Moors) visited Europe and were treated as honourable human beings.

With the rise of trans-Atlantic enslavement, biological racism became a crucial part of the cultural base of the colonial world civilization.

Charles de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

“Those concerned are black from head to toe, and they have such flat noses that it is almost impossible to feel sorry for them. One cannot get into one’s mind that God, who is a very wise being, should have put a soul, above all a good soul, in a body that was entirely black… A proof that Negroes do not have common sense is that they make more of a glass necklace than of one of gold, which is of such great consequence among nations having a police. It is impossible for us to assume that these people are men because if we assumed they were men one would begin to believe that we ourselves were not Christians.”

Montesquieu, Ch. De (1989):  The Spirit of Laws . Cambridge Text in the History of Political Thought. Cambridge, p. 250. Original 1748.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

“Their round eyes, their flattened nose, their lips which are always large, their differently shaped ears, the wool of their head, that very measure of their intelligence, place prodigious differences between them and the other species of men… And they are not men, except in their stature, with the faculty of speech and thought at a degree far distant to ours. Such are the ones that I have seen and examined… And one could say that if their intelligence is not of another species than ours, then it is greatly inferior. They are not capable of paying much attention; they mingle very little, and they do not appear to be made either for the advantages or the abuses of our philosophy.”

Mellow, J. (2013):  Enlightenment Racism: Voltaire . http://jamesmelov.blogspot.nl/2013/07/enlightenment-racism-voltaire.html. Accessed 6 May 2015.

David Hume (1711-1776)

“I am apt to suspect the negroes, and in general all the other species of men (for there are four or five different kinds) to be naturally inferior to the whites. There scarcely ever was a civilized nation of any other complexion than white, nor even any individual eminent either in action or speculation. No ingenious manufactures amongst them, no arts, no sciences. On the other hand, the most rude and barbarous of the whites such as the ancient Germans, the present Tartars, have still something eminent about them, in their valour, form of government, or some other particular. Such a uniform and constant difference could not happen, in so many countries and ages, if nature had not made an original distinction between these breeds of men. Not to mention our colonies, there are negroe slaves dispersed all over Europe, of whom none ever discovered any symptoms of ingenuity; though low people, without education, will start up amongst us, and distinguish themselves in every profession. In Jamaica, indeed, they talk of one negroe as a man of parts and learning; but it is likely he is admired for slender accomplishments, like a parrot, who speaks a few words plainly.”

Hume, D. (1994):  Political Essays. Cambridge. Original 1777, p. 86.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

“The Negroes of Africa have by nature no feeling that rises above the ridiculous. Mr. Hume challenges anyone to adduce a single example where a Negro has demonstrated talents, and asserts that among the hundreds of thousands of blacks who have been transported elsewhere from their countries, although very many of them have been set free, nevertheless not a single one has ever been found who has accomplished something great in art or science or shown any other praiseworthy quality, while among the whites there are always those who rise up from the lowest rabble and through extraordinary gifts earn respect in the world. So essential is the difference between these two human kinds, and it seems to be just as great with regard to the capacities of mind as it is with respect to colour.”

Kant, I. (1992):  Observations on the feeling of the beautiful and sublime. In: Kant, I. (1992):  Lectures on Logic, pp. 18-62. Original 1764. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 59.

George Hegel (1770-1831)

“The Negro, as already observed, exhibits the natural man in his completely wild and untamed state. We must lay aside all thought of reverence and morality — all that we call feeling — if we would rightly comprehend him; there is nothing harmonious with humanity to be found in this type of character.”

Hegel, G. (2001):  The Philosophy of History. Batoche Books. Ontario. Original 1837, p. 110-111.

Insult as sciences:

Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)

– Classification of human races: physics and ethics:

The  Americanus : red, choleric, righteous; black, straight, thick hair; stubborn, zealous, free; painting himself with red lines, and regulated by customs.

The  Europeanus : white, sanguine, brown; with abundant, long hair; blue eyes; gentle, acute, inventive; covered with close vestments; and governed by laws.

The  Asiaticus : yellow, melancholic, stiff; black hair, dark eyes; severe, haughty, greedy; covered with loose clothing; and ruled by opinions.

The  Afer or Africanus : black, phlegmatic, relaxed; black, frizzled hair; silky skin, flat nose, tumid lips; females without shame; mammary glands give milk abundantly; crafty, sly, lazy, cunning, lustful, careless; anoints himself with grease; and governed by caprice.

2: Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Evolution of man.

“At some future period, not very distant as measured by centuries, the civilised races of man will almost certainly exterminate, and replace, the savage races throughout the world. At the same time the anthropomorphous apes, as Professor Schaaffhausen has remarked will no doubt be exterminated. The break between man and his nearest allies will then be wider, for it will intervene between man in a more civilised state, as we may hope, even than the Caucasian, and some ape as low as a baboon.”

Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882)

On the inequality of races.

White race = superior, intelligent.

Yellow race: mediocre.

Black and brown race: stupid.

Third wave: Cultural racism: 1850-now

Authority of knowledge production: social sciences are added to natural sciences and philosophy.

Racism – superiority and inferiority – is argued from social sciences: there are inferior and superior cultures.

Basis of cultural racism: theory of phases. All human beings may be equal biologically, but not all cultures are equal. Everything develops from a lower and simple phase to a higher and more complex phase, like Darwin’s concept of lower and higher life forms.

Western society represents the higher and most complex phase of human civilization and culture.

Racism was introduced in science with the transition from Christian theology as the authority of knowledge production to Eurocentric scientists as the new authority. This transition was based on the transition in the colonial world civilization and the role of trans-Atlantic enslavement in that civilization. The concept of modernity and rationalism. The European Enlightenment was a struggle against the dictatorship of the Christian caliphate. The struggle took the path of separating ethics from science and the separation of church and state.

John Locke (England, 1632-1704):

To prevent religious fanatics from using the state apparatus to enforce their views on others, there must be a separation of church and state.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) critique of theologians:

“Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one’s own understanding without the guidance of another. This immaturity is self-incurred if its cause is not a lack of understanding, but a lack of resolution and courage to use it without the guidance of another. The motto of enlightenment is, therefore: Sapere aude! Have the courage to use your own understanding!”

August Comte (1798-1857), founder of sociology and positivism

Law of three stages (law of human progress):

– Theological stage: explanation by personified deities.

– Metaphysical stage: explanation by impersonal abstract concepts, an abstract God.

– Positivist stage: scientific explanation based on observation, experiment, and comparison.

The West is in the positivist stage.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Europe is advanced: technologically, economically, and culturally. Why? Europe has the best religion: Protestantism. Not crimes of colonialism but the mentality of hard work, rational conduct, and economic insight has made it possible.

Marx and Engels: stages of modes of production

– Primitive-communal: Societies where primitive gathering, fishing, and hunting form the base of the economy. The production is so meagre that they must be shared equally in order to avoid death by starvation.

– Asiatic mode of production: communal groups living in villages ruled by chieftains, clans, and priest-kings, who perform trading, military or irrigation-directing functions for the whole. They extract a surplus from the communes through taxes. So, there is social differentiation in the community.

– Ancient, Classical or slave mode of production: The work is done by slaves. They are the property of slave owners.

– Capitalist society: a modern society based on private ownership of the means of production: everything becomes a commodity.

WHY OCE?

In the 21st century, cultural challenges will loom large as human values and rights are being questioned, democracy is endangered (even in the digital world), and people and organisations are searching for new paths. Innovative ideas from the cultural and creative sectors are necessary to tackle this situation. These sectors can potentially create an environment where social conversations can thrive. Unfortunately, this potential remains untapped in Zambia, as in many other African countries. As we gradually realise, cultural spaces can be easily co-opted to serve particular interests. During the colonial era, the claims that prevailed were those of the colonial powers, and centuries of African culture, folklore, and cultural expressions were disrespected, destroyed, and relegated to superstition.

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Theory of Change

Problem Statement: Africa’s economic and social development has been hindered by a persistent mindset shaped by colonial epistemological structures and paradigms, limiting the continent’s potential. Goal: Empower a confident, bold, and prosperous African citizenry, unencumbered by tangible and intangible forces, to achieve their full potential and drive transformative change. Theory of Change:
  1. Transformative Expressions of Folklore: OCE will leverage folklore as a powerful tool to challenge and change limiting mindsets, beliefs, and behaviors.
  2. Lasting Positive Change: By promoting positive narratives and cultural expressions, OCE will create lasting changes in perceptions, mindsets, behaviors, and actions.
  3. Empowerment and Self-Esteem: By instilling self-esteem and assurance, individuals will become empowered to be their best versions, driving personal and collective growth.
  4. Future Generation: OCE will inspire a future generation to appreciate Africa’s rich history, legacy, and resilience, ensuring a continued trajectory of growth and development.
  5. Transformative Change: Through creative thinking and critical inquiry, OCE will drive transformative change, impacting Africa’s social and economic trajectory.
  6. Collective Pride and Social Responsibility: OCE’s efforts will foster collective pride, social responsibility, and a sense of ownership, leading to unparalleled prosperity and development.
Assumptions:
  1. African culture and folklore hold the power to transform mindsets and behaviours.
  2. Empowering individuals will lead to collective growth and development.
  3. Challenging limiting beliefs and paradigms will unlock Africa’s potential.
Outcomes:
  1. Increased self-esteem and confidence among Africans.
  2. Shift in mindset and behaviours, driving economic and social development.
  3. A future generation proud of Africa’s heritage and committed to its growth.
  4. Transformative change in Africa’s social and economic trajectory.
Indicators:
  1. Increased cultural expression and pride.
  2. Improved economic and social indicators.
  3. Growing number of empowered individuals and communities.
  4. Shift in narratives and mindsets.
By joining the OCE movement, individuals can participate in this journey towards a brighter future for Africa, empowering a confident, bold, and prosperous citizenry to drive transformative change.

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Core Activities

Systematically building theory on the cultural production’s centrality in achieving sustainable human development. Capturing, digitising, and re-circulating the stories found in the rich African folklore

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Core values

At the heart of our mission lies our unwavering commitment to promoting Africa’s development by catalysing mindset change. We believe cultural production is a critical element in achieving sustainable human development

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WHY OCE?

The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda recognises culture as essential for sustainable development. However, the cultural dimension is not getting enough attention compared to other dimensions.

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